Born: c. 519 BCE
Died: c. 465 BCE
Nationality: Persian
Occupation: Emperor, Military Commander, Patron of Arts
Notable For: Leading the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, grand construction at Persepolis, Hellespont canal
Early Life of Xerxes the Great
Xerxes I was born around 519 BCE at Susa, the son of Darius the Great and Queen Atossa, herself a daughter of Cyrus the Great. From childhood, Xerxes was immersed in the royal court’s political machinations and religious rites of Zoroastrianism. He received tutelage in horsemanship, archery, diplomacy, and statecraft under senior satraps. His formative years included accompanying his father on campaigns to Egypt and Macedonia, where he observed both military logistics and colonial administration—experiences that shaped his imperial ambitions and sense of kingship.
Accession of Xerxes the Great to the Throne
In 486 BCE, following the death of Darius the Great in Susa, Xerxes the Great ascended the throne with full support of the Persian nobility and the “Ten Thousand Immortals.” He reaffirmed the satrapal system and satrap appointments instituted by his father, ensuring continuity. At his coronation, Xerxes invoked Ahura Mazda’s blessing, signaling both religious legitimacy and dynastic continuity. Within months, he resumed his father’s projects and prepared a massive expedition to avenge his predecessors’ defeats in Greece.
Monumental Building Projects of Xerxes the Great
Xerxes the Great expanded Persepolis into an unparalleled ceremonial capital. He completed the Gate of All Nations, the Throne Hall (Takht-e Jamshid), and vast royal storehouses. In Susa and Ecbatana, he refurbished palaces and audience halls, commissioning reliefs depicting delegations from across the empire. His massive workforce—drawn from many subject nations—fostered cultural syncretism and showcased Achaemenid power in stone.
Infrastructure Initiatives by Xerxes the Great
Continuing the Persian tradition, Xerxes the Great ordered the ambitious crossing of the Hellespont by constructing twin pontoon bridges—a feat of naval engineering designed to transport his army into Europe. He improved the Royal Road’s waystations, enlarged caravanserais, and maintained irrigation canals in Mesopotamia. These projects facilitated troop movements, trade, and imperial communication across his sprawling realm.
Xerxes the Great’s Preparation for the Second Invasion of Greece
Xerxes marshaled a vast army—estimated by Herodotus at over 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry—gathered from all satrapies. He assembled a multinational navy of Phoenician, Egyptian, and Ionian vessels. Logistics included stockpiling grain at Doriscus and establishing supply lines through Thrace. His generals, including Mardonius, were assigned strategic commands, reflecting Xerxes’s bold vision to crush Greek resistance once and for all.
Battle of Thermopylae and Xerxes the Great
In 480 BCE, Xerxes the Great’s forces engaged King Leonidas’s Spartans at Thermopylae. Though vastly outnumbered, the Greeks held the pass for three days. Ultimately, a Persian-allied Greek guide revealed a mountain path, allowing Xerxes’s army to surround and defeat the defenders. This hard-won victory opened the road to central Greece but at the cost of heavy Persian casualties, tempering Xerxes’s sense of invincibility.
Naval Clash at Salamis under Xerxes the Great
Emboldened, Xerxes the Great pressed on to Athens, which he razed. However, the decisive naval setback came at Salamis, where the Greek triremes, under Themistocles, lured the Persian fleet into cramped straits. The confined waters nullified Persia’s numerical advantage, leading to a catastrophic defeat. Xerxes watched helplessly from a throne on Mount Aigaleo, witnessing the collapse of his maritime supremacy and curtailment of his European ambitions.
Retreat and Aftermath of Xerxes the Great’s Campaign
Following Salamis, Xerxes the Great withdrew the bulk of his army to Asia, leaving Mardonius with a remnant force. The ensuing Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE resulted in a decisive Greek victory that ended Persian hopes of subjugating mainland Greece. The failed expedition informed Xerxes’s subsequent shift toward consolidation and defense rather than further western conquests.
Governance and Administration under Xerxes the Great
After 480 BCE, Xerxes the Great focused on internal affairs. He reaffirmed tax quotas for each satrapy, oversaw the minting of new gold darics bearing his portrait, and commissioned updated legal decrees inscribed at Persepolis. He maintained religious tolerance, continuing temple restorations in Babylon and funding the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple. His reign balanced military setback with administrative resilience.
Cultural Patronage by Xerxes the Great
Xerxes the Great patronized poets, sculptors, and engineers. He sponsored grand festivals at Persepolis, depicting imperial processions in elaborate reliefs. His dedication to Zoroastrian rites was complemented by respect for local cults, from Egyptian Amun to Greek deities in Ionian temples. This cultural fusion sought to bind diverse peoples to the Persian crown through shared artistic and religious expression.
Xerxes the Great in Historical Sources
Our primary narrative of Xerxes the Great comes from Herodotus’s “Histories,” which dramatizes his campaigns and personality. Archaeological evidence—from the palace reliefs to bridge remnants at the Hellespont—corroborates many details, while Persian administrative tablets highlight his bureaucratic continuity. Modern scholars debate Herodotus’s biases, presenting Xerxes as both a visionary ruler and a flawed commander.
Death of Xerxes the Great and Succession
Xerxes the Great was assassinated in 465 BCE, the victim of a palace conspiracy led by Artabanus and the royal page Aspamitres. His tomb at Persepolis, though later desecrated by Alexander the Great, remains a testament to Achaemenid monumentality. He was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes I, who continued policies of consolidation and cultural patronage.
Legacy and Modern Appraisal of Xerxes the Great
Xerxes the Great’s legacy is twofold: his grand vision of imperial unity and his dramatic overreach in Greece. He expanded the Persian architectural corpus and refined administrative systems inherited from Darius. Modern historians recognize him as a pivotal figure whose ambitions shaped East–West relations for centuries. His reign exemplifies the balance between monumental ambition and the limits of military power.
Frequently Asked Questions
What made Xerxes the Great famous?
He is best known for leading the Second Persian Invasion of Greece and commissioning grand construction at Persepolis.
Why did Xerxes the Great fail in Greece?
Key factors included Greek naval tactics at Salamis, the narrow terrain at Thermopylae, and logistical challenges over extended supply lines.
How did Xerxes the Great die?
He was assassinated in a palace coup in 465 BCE by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard.
Where can I see Xerxes the Great’s works today?
Remnants of his palaces at Persepolis, the Hellespont bridge foundations, and reliefs in Susa and Ecbatana.